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The cultural boundaries separating White Americans from other racial or ethnic categories are contested and always changing. David R. Roediger argues that the construction of the white race in the United States was an effort to mentally distance slaveowners from slaves.〔Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, 186; Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (New York, 1998).〕 By the 18th century, ''white'' had become well established as a racial term. The process of officially being defined as ''white'' by law often came about in court disputes over pursuit of citizenship. The Naturalization Act of 1790 offered naturalization only to "any alien, being a free white person". In at least 52 cases, people denied the status of white by immigration officials sued in court for status as white people. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence" was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, culture, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.〔John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," ''The Yale Law Journal'', Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan., 2000), pp. 817-848.〕 The 2000 U.S. census states that racial categories "generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country. They do not conform to any biological, anthropological or genetic criteria."〔(Questions and Answers for Census 2000 Data on Race ) from U.S. Census Bureau, 14 March 2001. Retrieved 15 October 2006.〕 It defines "white people" as "people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.〔(The White Population: 2000 ), Census 2000 Brief C2KBR/01-4, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2001.〕 The 1990 US Census Public Use Microdata Sample lists "''Caucasian''" or "''Aryan''" ancestry responses as subgroups of "White"〔(University of Michigan. Census 1990: Ancestry Codes. August 27, 2007 )〕 but the 2005 PUMS codes do not.〔http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/PUMS/C2SS/CodeList/2005/Ancestry.htm〕 In U.S. census documents, the designation ''white'' or ''Caucasian'' may overlap with the term ''Hispanic'', which was introduced in the 1980 census as a category of ethnicity, separate and independent of race.〔(Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 2000 ) U.S. Census Bureau〕 In cases where individuals do not self-identify, the U.S. census parameters for race give each national origin a racial value. The U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation also categorizes "white people" as "people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa, through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce.〔(Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook ), U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation. P. 97 (2004)〕 ==German Americans== Large numbers of Germans migrated to North America between the 1680s and 1760s. Many settled in the English colony of Pennsylvania. In the 18th century, many persons of English descent harbored resentment towards the increasing number of German settlers. Benjamin Franklin in "Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.", complained about the increasing influx of German Americans, stating that they had a negative influence on the early United States. The only exception were Germans of Saxon descent'' "who with the English, make the principal Body of White People on the Face of the Earth. I could wish their Numbers were increased"''. Unlike most European immigrant groups, whose acceptance as white came gradually over the course of the late 19th century (that is, in U.S. colloquial definitions, since all Europeans were white by legal U.S. definition), German immigrants quickly became accepted as white.〔See David R. Roediger, ''The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class'' (London: Verso, 1991) p. 32 for their earlier status. See op. cit. p. 142 for Stephen O. Douglas's acceptance, in his debates against Abraham Lincoln, that Germans are a "branch of the Caucasian race." See op. cit. p. 155 for anti-abolitionist tracts of 1864 accusing abolitionist German-Americans of having "broken their ties with the white race" by opposing slavery. Finally, see Frank W. Sweet, ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'' (Palm Coast FL: Backintyme, 2005) p. 332 and Leon F. Litwack, ''North of Slavery: the Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860'' (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1961) p. 75 for the legislated disfranchisement of Pennsylvanians of African ancestry by the first state legislature controlled by German-Americans.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Definitions of whiteness in the United States」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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